Implementation Research Logic Model Resources

The Innovation Resources

Learn more about selecting and adapting the innovation by watching our video above and reading the Top 10 CDIS-created articles below.

Related Publications & Articles

  1. Becker SJ, Shiller H, Fan Y, DiBartolo E, Olson MB, Casline E, Wijaya C, Helseth SA, Kelly LM. Refining Parent SMART: User Feedback to Optimize a Multi-Modal Intervention. Journal of Substance Use and Addiction Treatment. 2024 Nov 1;166:209405. 
    • Describes how user feedback was used to refine a multi-component parenting intervention
  2. Brown CH, Curran G, Palinkas LA, Aarons GA, Wells KB, Jones L, Collins LM, Duan N, Mittman BS, Wallace A, Tabak RG. An Overview of Research and Evaluation Designs for Dissemination and Implementation. Annual Review of Public Health. 2017 Mar 20;38(1):1-22.
    • Introduces the concept of the 7P’s to describe the types of innovations that can be implemented
  3. Davis M, Johnson C, Pettit AR, Barkin S, Hoffman BD, Jager-Hyman S, King CA, Lieberman A, Massey L, Rivara FP, Sigel E, Walton M, Wolk CB, Beidas RS. Adapting Safety Check as a Universal Suicide Prevention Strategy in Pediatric Primary Care. Academic Pediatrics. 2021 Sep-Oct;21(7):1161-1170.
    • Outlines the steps taken to adapt a secure firearm storage program in response to constituent feedback
  4. Helseth SA, Piper KN, Dunne CJ, Kemp K, Barnett NP, Clark MA, Spirito A, Becker SJ. User-Centered Design of an Adjunct Smartphone App to Reduce Cannabis Use Among Youth Diverted from the Juvenile Legal System. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology. 2025 Dec;53(12):1797-811.
    • Describes how user-centered design principles were used to develop a novel intervention for court-involved youth
  5. Kruger M, Goldschmidt AB, Ortega A, Wharton A, Chapa DA, Stalvey ER, Rooper IR, Obleada KT, Miller GC, Graham AK. Applying Design to Design: Demonstrating How to Create a Human-Centered Design Session Interview Guide for Use with Adolescents. Frontiers in Digital Health. 2025 Apr 17;7:1507517. 
    • Provides pragmatic guidance on how to create a human-centered design interview guide
  6. Li DH, Brown CH, Gallo C, Morgan E, Sullivan PS, Young SD, Mustanski B. Design Considerations for Implementing eHealth Behavioral Interventions for HIV Prevention in Evolving Sociotechnical Landscapes. Current HIV/AIDS Reports. 2019 Aug;16(4):335-348
    • Discusses design considerations when the innovation is an eHealth behavioral intervention
  7. Meyerhoff J, Kornfield R, Lattie EG, Knapp AA, Kruzan KP, Jacobs M, Stamatis CA, Taple BJ, Beltzer ML, Berry ABL, Reddy M, Mohr DC, Graham AK. (2023). From Formative Design to Service-Ready Therapeutic: A Pragmatic Approach to Designing Digital Mental Health Interventions Across Domains. Internet Interventions, 34, 100677. 
    • Outlines a pragmatic process that can be used to design digital mental health interventions
  8. Smith JD, Li DH, Merle JL, Keiser B, Mustanski B, Benbow ND. Adjunctive Interventions: Change Methods Directed at Recipients that Support Uptake and Use of Health Innovations. Implementation Science. 2024 Feb 8;19(1):10. 
    • Defines adjunctive interventions as a unique type of innovation that can be implemented
  9. Scott K, Guigayoma J, Palinkas LA, Beaudoin FL, Clark MA, Becker SJ. The Measurement-Based Care to Opioid Treatment Programs Project (MBC2OTP): A Study Protocol Using Rapid Assessment Procedure Informed Clinical Ethnography. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice. 2022 Aug 19;17(1):44.
    • Demonstrates how the RAPICE (Rapid Assessment Procedure Informed Clinical Ethnography) approach can be used to inform adaptation of the innovation
  10. Walsh-Bailey C, Palazzo LG, Jones SM, Mettert KD, Powell BJ, Wiltsey Stirman S, Lyon AR, Rohde P, Lewis CC. A Pilot Study Comparing Tools for Tracking Implementation Strategies and Treatment Adaptations. Implementation Research and Practice. 2021 May 31;2:26334895211016028.
    • Compares tools that can be used for tracking adaptations of the innovation

Implementation Determinants Resources

 

Learn more about contextual determinants by watching our video above and reading the Top 10 CDIS-created articles below.

Related Publications & Articles

  1. Carroll AJ, Robinson DG, Kane JM, Kordon A, Bannon J, Walunas TL, Brown CH. Multi-Level Barriers And Facilitators to Implementing Evidence-Based Antipsychotics in the Treatment of Early-Phase Schizophrenia. Frontiers in Health Services. 2024 Oct 14;4:1385398.
    • Describes implementation barriers and facilitators of antipsychotics for the treatment of early-phase schizophrenia
  2. Jakubowski A, Patrick B, DiClemente-Bosco K, Salino S, Scott K & Becker SJ. Using The IFASIS (Inventory of Factors Affecting Successful Implementation and Sustainment) To Advance Context-Specific and Generalizable Knowledge of Implementation Determinants: Case Study of a Digital Contingency Management Platform. Implement Science Communications6, 35 (2025).
    • Demonstrates the use of a novel tool to assess the valence and importance of common implementation determinants
  3. Li DH, Benbow N, Keiser B, Mongrella M, Ortiz K, Villamar J, Gallo C, Deskins JS, Xavier Hall CD, Miller C, Mustanski B, Smith JD. Determinants of Implementation for HIV Pre-exposure Prophylaxis Based on an Updated Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research: A Systematic Review. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 2022 Jul 1;90(S1):S235-S246.
    • Employs systematic review methodology to elicit common implementation determinants for HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis
  4. Patel-Syed Z, Moise IK, Bulotsky-Shearer R, Price M, Becker SJ, Jensen-Doss A. Conceptualizing Neighborhood Context in Youth Psychotherapy Research. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 2024 Sep 2;53(5):747-53.
    • Considers how to measure neighborhood context in youth behavioral health research
  5. Schriger SH, Knowles M, Daglieri T, Kangovi S, Beidas RS. Barriers And Facilitators to Implementing an Evidence-Based Community Health Worker Model. JAMA Health Forum 2024 Mar 1 (Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. e240034-e240034). American Medical Association.
    • Elicits barriers and facilitators encountered when implementing a community health work model
  6. Scott K, Mello MJ, Almonte G, Lemus EA, Bromberg JR, Baird J, Spirito A, Zonfrillo MR, Lawson K, Lee LK, Christison-Lagay E., Ruest S, Aidlen J, Kiragu A, Pruitt C, Nasr I, Maxson RT, Ebel B & Becker SJ. A Qualitative Process Evaluation of SBIRT Implementation in Pediatric Trauma Centers Using the Science to Service Laboratory Implementation Strategy. Implementation Science Communications. 2025 Jan 30;6(1):13.
    • Examines factors that influenced implementation of SBIRT across a network of pediatric trauma centers
  7. Van Pelt A, Beidas RS. Future Directions for Providing Conceptual Clarity Related to Context in Implementation Comment on "Stakeholder Perspectives of Attributes and Features of Context Relevant to Knowledge Translation in Health Settings: A Multi-Country Analysis". International Journal of Health Policy Management. 2022 Aug 1;11(8):1577-1579.
    • Provides recommendations for the reporting of implementation context in global health studies
  8. Van Pelt AE, Lowenthal ED, Phoi O, Tshume O, Matshaba M, Beidas RS. Medical Stakeholder Perspectives on Implementing a Computerized Battery to Identify Neurocognitive Impairments Among Youth in Botswana. AIDS Care. 2022 Dec;34(12):1513-1521.
    • Examines constituent perspectives on implementation determinants of a computerized assessment battery in Botswana
  9. Walsh-Bailey C, Tsai E, Tabak RG, Morshed AB, Norton WE, McKay VR, Brownson RC & Gifford S. A Scoping Review of De-Implementation Frameworks and Models. Implementation Science16, 100 (2021). 
    • Employs scoping review methodology to elicit common de-implementation frameworks and models
  10. Williams FS, Welch S, Gopagani N, Zylka I, Curtis K, Franklin P, Becker S. Health Professional Perspectives on Integrating Substance Use Services into Pediatric Hospitals for Adolescents with Chronic Medical Conditions. Discover Health Systems. 2026 Feb 27;5(1):17.
    • Elicits constituent perspectives on implementation determinants of substance use services in pediatric hospitals

Implementation Strategies Resources

 

Learn more about implementation strategies by watching our video above and reading the Top 10 CDIS-created articles below.

Related Publications & Articles

  1. Becker SJ, Janssen T, Souza T, Hartzler B, Rash CJ, DiClemente-Bosco K, Garner BR. Project MIMIC (Maximizing Implementation of Motivational Incentives in Clinics): Results of a 28-Site Cluster-Randomized Type 3 Hybrid Trial. Implementation Science. 2026 Dec;21(1):9.
    • Tests two multi-level strategies to promote the implementation of contingency management across 28 opioid treatment programs
  2. Becker SJ, Scott K, Elwy AR. You Have an Effective Brief Intervention (BI) for Young Adults, Now What? Concrete Strategies to Advance BI Implementation in Usual Care Settings. Psychology of Addictive Behavior. 2022 Sep;36(6):724-735.
    • Provides pragmatic advice on strategies that can be used to advance the implementation of brief interventions in routine care
  3. Beidas RS, Linn KA, Boggs JM, Marcus SC, Hoskins K, Jager-Hyman S, Johnson C, Maye M, Quintana L, Wolk CB, Wright L. Implementation of a Secure Firearm Storage Program in Pediatric Primary Care: A Cluster Randomized Trial. JAMA Pediatrics. 2024 Nov;178(11):1104-13.
    • Compares two multi-level strategies to promote the implementation of a secure firearm prevention program
  4. Gharzai LA, Bromfield J, Kwan M, Larson A, Kingsbury JA, Akthar A, Agarwal G, Vermylen JH, Becker S, Scott K, Van Pelt AE, Stepan KO. Implementation Mapping to Identify Strategies to Increase Timely Postoperative Radiotherapy Initiation for Head/Neck Cancer. Otolaryngoly-Head and Neck Surgery. 2025 Jul;173(1):288-298.
    • Demonstrates the use of implementation mapping to select strategies to improve timely initiation of radiotherapy for head/neck cancer
  5. Graham AK, Lattie EG, Powell BJ, Lyon AR, Smith JD, Schueller SM, Stadnick NA, Brown CH, Mohr DC. Implementation Strategies for Digital Mental Health Interventions in Health Care Settings. American Psychologist. 2020 Nov;75(8):1080-1092.
    • Describes unique considerations when applying implementation strategies for digital health interventions
  6. Knapp AA, Carroll AJ, Mohanty N, Fu E, Powell BJ, Hamilton A, Burton ND, Coldren E, Hossain T, Limaye DP, Mendoza D, Sethi M, Padilla R, Price HE, Villamar JA, Jordan N, Langman CB & Smith JD. A Stakeholder-Driven Method for Selecting Implementation Strategies: A Case Example of Pediatric Hypertension Clinical Practice Guideline Implementation. Implementation Science Communications. 2022 Mar 7;3(1):25.
    • Provides an example of using a partner-engaged process for selecting strategies
  7. Li DH, Lanzi RG, Pyra M. Progress and Priorities to End the HIV Epidemic by 2030: Combined Lessons from 120 US Implementation Research Projects. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 2025 Apr ;98(5S):e1-9.
    • Articulates lessons from 120 HIV implementation research projects with an emphasis on effective implementation strategies
  8. Schleider JL, Beidas RS. Harnessing the Single-Session Intervention Approach to Promote Scalable Implementation of Evidence-Based Practices in Healthcare. Frontiers in Health Services. 2022 Sep;2:997406.
    • Discusses the use of single-session interventions as a viable strategy to promote the uptake of evidence-based practices
  9. Van Pelt AE, Casline E, Cook BGM, Phillips II G, Cestou J, Mustanski B, Saber R & Beidas RS. Crowdsourcing Ideas for the Implementation of Long-Acting Injectable PrEP among Sexual Minority Men in Chicago through an Innovation Tournament. Implementation Science Communications. 2025 May 26;6:65.
    • Illustrates how to employ an innovation tournament to crowdsource strategy ideas
  10. Van Pelt AE, Paniagua-Avila A, Sanchez A, Sila S, Lowenthal ED, Powell BJ & Beidas RS. Spanish Translation of the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (ERIC) Compilation. Implementation Science Communications. 2024 Jul 17;5(1):77
    • Translates the ERIC strategy compilation into Spanish using a three-step linguistic translation process

Implementation Outcomes Resources

 

Learn more about implementation outcomes by watching our video above and reading the Top 10 CDIS-created articles below.

Related Publications & Articles

  1. Carroll AJ, Jaffe AE, Stanton K, Guille C, Lazenby GB, Soper DE, Gilmore AK & Holland-Carter L. Program Evaluation of an Integrated Behavioral Health Clinic in an Outpatient Women’s Health Clinic: Challenges and Considerations. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings 27, 207–216 (2020).
    • Provides a comprehensive evaluation of an integrated behavioral health clinic using implementation outcomes
  2. Casline E, Scott K, Murphy CM, Garner BR, Becker SJ. Evaluating Provider Report of Fidelity to Contingency Management in Opioid Treatment Programs. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2025 Feb 1;267:112544.
    • Compares self-report and observer-rated fidelity measures in the context of an implementation trial
  3. Cohen KA, Smith AC, Schleider JL. Integrating Single-Session Interventions into Existing Care Systems: Conceptualizing Implementation through the RE-AIM Framework. Advances in Psychiatry and Behavioral Health. 2024 Sep 1;4(1):81-9.
    • Illustrates how RE-AIM can be used to guide evaluation of implementation initiatives
  4. Dougherty K, Hailemariam N, Jenkins G, Chen J, Ilangali J, Mwangi J, Thomas J, Mwaniki HM, Dosunmu O, Tillya R, Ngwala S, Lawn JE, Richards-Kortum R, Oden ZM, Bohne C, Hirschhorn L. Using Implementation Science to Define the Model and Outcomes for Improving Quality in Nest360, A Multicountry Alliance for Reducing Newborn Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa. BMJ Quality & Safety. 2026 Feb 1;35(2):83-94.
    • Demonstrates how implementation science guided the outcome evaluation of a multi-country initiative to reduce newborn mortality
  5. Helseth SA, Janssen T, Scott K, Squires DD, Becker SJ. Training Community-Based Treatment Providers to Implement Contingency Management for Opioid Addiction: Time to and Frequency of Adoption. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2018 Dec;95:26-34.
    • Illustrates how speed and frequency of adoption can be used as implementation outcomes 
  6. Helseth SA, Peer SO, Are F, Korell AM, Saunders BE, Schoenwald SK, Chapman JE & Hanson RF. Sustainment of Trauma-Focused and Evidence-Based Practices Following Learning Collaborative Implementation. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 47, 569–580 (2020).
    • Examines sustainment of evidence-based practices following removal of implementation support 
  7. MacDonald J, Doyle L, Moore JL,Rafferty MR. Sustainment of Proactive Physical Therapy for Individuals With Early-Stage Parkinson's Disease: A Quality Improvement Study Over 4 Years. Implement Science Communications. 2021 Sep 27;2(1):111.
    • Examines sustainment of a physical therapy over a 4-year horizon
  8. Patel-Syed Z, Becker SJ, Olson M, Rinella H & Scott K. What Do You Think It Means? Using Cognitive Interviewing to Improve Measurement in Implementation Science: Description and Case Example. Implement Science Communications 5, 14 (2024).
    • Considers how to improve outcome assessment with cognitive interviewing
  9. Rudd BN, Davis M & Beidas RS. Integrating Implementation Science in Clinical Research to Maximize Public Health Impact: A Call for The Reporting and Alignment of Implementation Strategy Use with Implementation Outcomes in Clinical Research. Implementation Science 15, 103 (2020).
    • Calls for better alignment of implementation strategies and outcomes
  10. Xie CX,Franklin PD, Walunas TL, Beidas RS. Data‐Driven Implementation Trials: Realizing Their Full Potential in Achieving the Promise of Learning Health Systems. Learning Health Systems. 2026 Jan;10(1):e70043.
    • Calls for use of data-driven implementation trials that continuously examine outcomes to foster learning health systems

Constituent Engagement Resources

 

Learn more about constituent engagement by watching our video above and reading the Top 10 CDIS-created articles below.

Related Publications & Articles

  1. Beidas RS, Barnard C, Hirschhorn LR, Rafferty MR, Scott K, Becker SJ, Franklin PD. Partnership Makes Performance: Integration Approaches to Optimise Implementation Science and Quality Improvement Collaboration. BMJ Quality & Safety. 2026 Feb 1;35(2):141-6.
    • Introduces a taxonomy of approaches to foster partnerships across implementation science and quality improvement
  2. Carroll AJ, Knapp AA, Villamar JA, Mohanty N, Coldren E, Hossain T, Limaye D, Mendoza D, Minier M, Sethi M, Brown CH, Franklin PD, Davis MM, Wakschlag LS, Smith JD. Engaging Primary Care Clinicians in the Selection of Implementation Strategies for Toddler Social-Emotional Health Promotion in Community Health Centers. Families, Systems, & Health. 2024 Mar;42(1):50-67.
    • Presents an approach to engaging partners in implementation strategy selection
  3. Crane ME, Purtle J, Becker SJ. Amplifying Consumers as Partners in Dissemination and Implementation Science and Practice. Implementation Research and Practice. 2023 Oct 11;4:26334895231205894.
    • Calls for the amplification of consumers as partners in implementation research  
  4. Graham AK, Azubuike C, Johnson L, Parsons LM, Lipman LD, Rooper IR, Ortega A, Kruger Camino M, Miller G, Jia, J. and Wildes, J.E. (2024), Partnering With Food Pantries to Disseminate and Implement Eating Disorder Interventions. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 57: 1811-1815. 
    • Details an approach to partnering with food pantries to improve access to health interventions
  5. Mustanski B, Smith JD, Keiser B, Li DH, Benbow N. Supporting the Growth of Domestic HIV Implementation Research in the United States through Coordination, Consultation, and Collaboration: How We Got Here and Where We Are Headed. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 2022 Jul;90(S1):S1-8.
    • Reflects on how Northwestern’s Implementation Science Coordination Initiative has fostered the domestic HIV implementation research agenda through partnerships
  6. Obiezu-Umeh C, Huffman MD, Ojji DB. Integration of a Hypertension Treatment Programme into Nigeria’s Primary Healthcare System: Report from a Stakeholders and Policymakers’ Workshop. European Heart Journal. 2024 Oct; 45(39): 4150–4152
    • Presents results of a workshop that brought together a broad range of constituents and policymakers to advance implementation of hypertension treatment across Nigeria
  7. Ramanadhan S, Alemán R, Bradley CD, Cruz JL, Safaeinili N, Simonds V, Aveling EL. Using Participatory Implementation Science to Advance Health Equity. Annual Review of Public Health. 2024 May;45(1):47-67.
    • Calls for the use of participatory implementation science as a means of promoting more equitable research 
  8. Skolarus L, Thrash-Sall E, Hellem AK, Giacalone Jr M, Burke J, Lin CC, Bailey S, Corches C, Dinh M, Casetti A, Mansour M, Bowie K, Roth R, Whitfield C, Sales A. Community-Led, Cross-Sector Partnership of Housing and Health Care to Promote Aging in Place (Unite Health Project): Protocol for a Prospective Observational Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research - Research Protocols 2023;12:e47855
    • Presents a protocol that harnesses a multi-sector community-led partnership to promote healthy aging 
  9. Van Pelt AE, Beidas RS, Baumann AA, Castillo-Neyra R. Recommendations for Empowering Partners to Conduct Implementation Research in Latin America to Advance Global Health. Global Implementation Research and Applications. 2023 Dec;3(4):390-9.
    • Provides a set of recommendations to empower partners to conduct implementation research in Latin America
  10. Van Pelt AE, Dougherty K, Nwaozuru U, Obiezu-Umeh C. “We’ve Already Been Doing This, We Just Didn’t Call It Implementation Science”: A Call for Shared Language in Global Health. BMC Global and Public Health. 2025 Nov 14;3(1):101.
    • Calls for shared language as a means of fostering partnerships between global health and implementation researchers

General IS Methods & Processes Resources

 

Learn more about implementation process and design by watching our video above and reading the Top 10 CDIS-created articles below.

Related Publications & Articles

  1. Aarons GA, Sklar M, Mustanski B, Benbow N, Brown CH. “Scaling-Out” Evidence-Based Interventions to New Populations or New Health Care Delivery Systems. Implementation Science 12, 111 (2017).
    • Pioneers concepts that have become seminal related to the scaling out of evidence-based interventions
  2. Becker SJ. Direct-to-Consumer Marketing: A Complementary Approach to Traditional Dissemination and implementation Efforts for Mental Health and Substance Abuse Interventions. Clinical Psychology (New York). 2015 Mar;22(1):85-100.
    • Introduces foundational methods for increasing customer awareness of and demand for quality treatment
  3. Becker SJ, DiClemente-Bosco K, Scott K, Helseth SA, Patel-Syed Z, Li DH. The “D&I Bridge”: Introducing a Teaching Tool to Define the D, the I, and the Why. Implementation Science Communications. 2024 Feb 27;5(1):18.
    • Describes a new teaching tool to describe key concepts in implementation science
  4. Becker SJ, Ford II JH, Glass JE, Gotham HJ, Knudsen HK, Quanbeck A, Roosa M, Williams EC. Enduring Contributions to Implementation Science: Honoring the Legacy of Bryan R. Garner. Frontiers in Health Services. 2025 Oct 23;5:1698749.
    • Details the methodological contributions of Bryan Garner, a friend and colleague to many CDIS faculty
  5. Beidas RS, Dorsey S, Lewis CC, Lyon AR, Powell BJ, Purtle J, Saldana L, Shelton RC, Stirman SW & Lane-Fall MB. Promises and Pitfalls in Implementation Science from the Perspective of US-Based Researchers: Learning from a Pre-Mortem. Implementation Science 17, 55 (2022).
    • Serves as a landmark piece reflecting on progress in the field of implementation science and areas of opportunity
  6. Beidas RS, Boyd M, Casline E, Scott K, Patel-Syed Z, Mills C, Mustanski B, Schriger S, Williams FS, Waller C, Helseth SA, Becker SJ. Harnessing Implementation Science in Clinical Psychology: Past, Present, and Future. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 2025 Feb 19;21.
    • Offers step-wise guidance for clinical psychologists seeking to infuse implementation science methods into their work
  7. Brown CH, Curran G, Palinkas LA, Aarons GA, Wells KB, Jones L, Collins LM, Duan N, Mittman BS, Wallace A, Tabak RG, Ducharme L, Chambers DA, Neta G, Wiley T, Landsverk J, Cheung K, Cruden G. An Overview of Research and Evaluation Designs for Dissemination and Implementation. Annual Review of Public Health. 2017 Mar 20;38:1-22.
    • Introduces the 7 P’s framework that has become foundational to the specification of innovations
  8. Lane-Fall MB, Curran GM, Beidas RS. Scoping Implementation Science for the Beginner: Locating Yourself on the “Subway Line” of Translational Research. BMC Medical Research Methodology. 2019 Jun;19(1):133.
    • Scopes implementation science along a “subway line” that has become a landmark teaching tool
  9. Simon GE, Garner BR, Smith JD, Wyman PA, Matson TE, Chin-Purcell L, Cero I, Vermeer W, Johnson KA, Prado G, Brown CH. Rollout Trial Designs in Implementation Research are Often Necessary and Sometimes Preferred. Implementation Science 20, 11 (2025).
    • Discusses the ethical, scientific, and practical reasons rollout designs may be more suitable than traditional parallel group designs
  10. Smith JD, Li DH & Rafferty MR. The Implementation Research Logic Model: A Method for Planning, Executing, Reporting, and Synthesizing Implementation Projects. Implementation Science 15, 84 (2020).
    • Introduces the Implementation Research Logic Model, which has become a landmark framework in the field